Bull Volcanol 66(7):652668, Department of Conservation (2012) Volcanic risk in Tongariro National Park. Ontake. 3a). Ontake, Te Maari)? How far projectiles go from the vent partly depends on the size of ejected fragments. 2010; Houghton et al. ff hut oennkr ei sjurck fgtkregl. Rapid cooling of basaltic lava while still in the air produce teardrop-shaped lapilli-sized fragments. gases adsorbed on the particles as acid aerosols and salt particles. They have tenperatures above ignition points. 2004; Haynes et al. Mt. It is important to remember that every context is different and what works at one volcano does not necessarily mean it will work or is needed at another. At low levels the wind pattern is ____________. Follow a projectile path as these are forced out of the vent at steep angles like a cannon ball. upwgro hy krupteji cjlufi's bjt dgsks jr lgvg njuitgeis. Ballistics are fragments of lava (bombs) or rock (blocks) ejected in explosive eruptions (Fig. Meetings and other discussions were held with the local residents and businesses involved with the TAC to discuss the situation and future scenarios. Geol Soc, London, Spec Publ 305(1):163177, Baxter P, Gresham A (1997) Deaths and injuries in the eruption of Galeras Volcano, Colombia, 14 January 1993. Most volcanic gases are noxious and smell bad, but they Fortunately, the eruption occurred at night, in winter (the low season) and in bad weather, resulting in no hikers along the TAC or staying at Ketetahi Hut (both around 1.5km away from the vent and well within the impacted area). We summarise the three that could be found. Blocks and bombs. by (1) the force of impact of falling fragments, but this occurs only Tephra falls and Ballistic Projectiles formed on Land Tephra consists of pyroclastic fragments of any size and origin. Detailed descriptions and maps of ballistic impact distributions are rare, but those published may contain some of the following data: maximum ballistic travel distances (Steinberg and Lorenz 1983; Robertson et al. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 92(12):107131, Robertson R, Cole P, Sparks RSJ, Harford C, Lejeune AM, McGuire WJ, Miller AD, Murphy MD, Norton G, Stevens NF, Young SR (1998) The explosive eruption of Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat, West Indies, 17 September, 1996. Scientifiques Technique, Sci. Disaster Prev Manag 8:118126, Johnston DM, Houghton BF, Neall VE, Ronan KR, Paton D (2000) Impacts of the 1945 and 19951996 Ruapehu eruptions, New Zealand: an example of increasing societal vulnerability. Pumice ; Haynes et al. The ranges of pyroclasts ejected in transient volcanic explosions. Tephrochronology is a geochronological technique that uses discrete layers of tephravolcanic ash from a single eruptionto create a chronological framework in which paleoenvironmental or archaeological records . Even thin (<2 cm) Ballistic projectiles. Both prefectures have developed hazard maps for two eruption scenarios that include ballisticsthe first a phreatic eruption similar in size to the 1979 eruption (VEI 2) and the second a larger eruption on the scale of 90,00020,000year recurrence interval (Nagano hazard map: http://vivaweb2.bosai.go.jp/v-hazard/L_read/53ontakesan/53ontake_2h03-L.pdf; Gifu hazard map: http://vivaweb2.bosai.go.jp/v-hazard/L_read/53ontakesan/53ontake_2h01-L.pdf). 2002; Mount Fuji Disaster Prevention Council 2004; Kagoshima City 2010; Leonard et al. Later, the cordon was moved to Emerald Lakes (on the edge of the 3km Volcanic Hazard Zone) as the track was partially reopened. 2007; Leonard et al. Risk management strategies and mitigation systems are key to protecting life and infrastructure from ballistic hazards (Leonard et al. Carbon dioxide emissions are now being monitored In these cases different hazard scenarios may be pre-prepared and communication strategies reused with a population that is well educated about the volcano. However, it is imperative to think of the risk context when making these decisions, as every situation is different. J Geol Soc 136(3):331340, Bower S, Woods A (1996) On the dispersal of clasts from volcanic craters during small explosive eruptions. In contrast, thick, coarse-grained Glacier melting produced by a ballistic missile is a function of the potential and kinetic energy involved from the moment of ejection of the projectile at the crater, until its impact on the glacier (see Delgado-Granados et al., 2007). http://www.geohazards.gov.vu/index.php/hazards-updated-events/volcano-alert-status. The 1979 eruption was preceded by earthquake swarms for a year and five months. death, injury, damage) from exposure to ballistics, typically with an associated probability of occurrence (Blong 1996). Ballistics were a known hazard from the active vents of Tongariro, witnessed in the 19745 Ngauruhoe eruptions (Nairn and Self 1978). Eruption frequency and magnitude, the extent of past ballistic distributions, and modelling of possible future trajectories were not investigated. The scope and scale of risk management activities should be guided by the risk context, and determine which and how risk management tools and strategies are used. An official website of the United States government. Even many months later, people in three states were dealing with the ash that had been resuspended by the wind and human activity. Lahar deposits formed from hyperconcentrated streamflows. restriction zones are emplaced). Multiple zones of different impact intensity may be shown (e.g. Nonetheless, even a short warning time may have provided more hikers time to get to shelter. The term tephra defines all pieces of all fragments of rock ejected into the air by an erupting volcano. The May 18, 1980 tephra plume lasted for about eight hours and the plume top ranged from 14-18 km (8.5-11 mi) high. Knowledge and understanding of volcanic hazards allows individuals to better decide whether to undertake preparedness and response measures, and if so, which are required, thus reducing their vulnerability to the hazard(s) (Siegrist and Cvetkovich 2000; Paton et al. 2013; Fitzgerald et al. These sometimes include hazards maps that provide the locations of where bombs have been observed or are likely to impact, and often caution the public to approach the crater or hazardous areas with care. J Volcanol Geoth Res 286:348366, Maeno F, Nakada S, Nagai M, Kozono T (2013) Ballistic ejecta and eruption condition of the vulcanian explosion of Shinmoedake volcano, Kyushu, Japan on 1 February, 2011. Ballistic projectiles ejected in explosive eruptions present a major proximal hazard to life, infrastructure and the environment. They also need to be focussed on the range of scenarios presenting the risk in that crisis (e.g. Deadly effects include asphyxiation, burial, a Electronic signs communicating risk level and track closure at entrances to the volcano and where it crosses the AVHZ. Prior to the eruption, Gifu and Nagano prefectures had separate commissions to manage volcanic activity from Mt. A new, event-specific Te Maari hazard map was created using mapped deposits and the most likely hazard scenarios, in which the main hazard zone was increased to a 3km radius (choosing the larger potential radius based on historic events) down-slope and deliberately renamed the Active Volcanic Hazard Zone (AVHZ) to distinguish it from the former map (Fig. However, a scenario with fatalities on the scale seen at Ontake is unlikely from Sakurajima due to the 2km restriction zone. These blocks and bombs travel like cannon balls and usually land within 2km of the vent (but can travel as far as 5km, or even further, if the eruption is very explosive.) This places more emphasis and weight on the availability of background hazard maps with messaging covering actions in events up to this size, signage around the volcano (in language(s) appropriate for the audience to comprehend, especially if there is a large proportion of visitors who speak a different language), on pamphlets distributed to businesses and visitors actually reading them, and through communication with their guides. 2012; Maeno et al. the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were destroyed in 79 AD Many small communities became temporarily isolated, and more than 10,000 people became stranded on roadways because of poor visibility, slippery roads, and ashdamaged vehicles. surface-drainage systems and sewage treatment plants, and short circuit Most tephra falls back onto the slopes of the volcano, enlarging it. Ontake risks reported in 1979. http://the-japan-news.com/news/article/0001673442. Strombolian and Vulcanian eruptions have been relatively continuous since 1774 (Eissen et al. J Volcanol Geoth Res 59(4):269278. 2010). (1999) utilise the Blong (1981) impact energy thresholds for roof perforation to assess building vulnerability from an eruption of Furnas Volcano, the Azores. Altmetric, Part of the Advances in Volcanology book series (VOLCAN). Ash can smother vegetation, destroy moving parts in motors and engines (especially in aircraft), and scratch surfaces. A good example of a ballistic hazard map that follows the best-practice steps above was created by Alatorre-Ibargengoitia et al. As the majority of people in the area are transient tourists, guides are often relied upon to relay hazard and risk information to their patrons. Potential hazards posed by U.S. volcanoes include tephra falls, pyroclastic flows and surges, VOG, ballistic projectiles, lahar and lava flows. The maximum travel distance of ballistic projectiles from each scenario (based on field and model distributions) is then used to define the extent of the hazard zones. for concentrated hazards research. A month of seismicity was noted prior to the 1991 eruption, increasing in frequency just days before the event. 2016). Ballistics are associated with all forms of explosive eruptions but are considered major hazards of hydrothermal, phreatic, phreatomagmatic, Strombolian and Vulcanian eruptions, especially those which have little to no precursory signals of volcanic unrest. Click to read further detail. 2010). Bjwkvkr, prkoecteid wbkrk, Do not sell or share my personal information. Following the August event, some of the local population evacuated for the night and the TAC was closed for two months due to the risk of further eruption. It can reduce visibility to zero and turn day to night by blocking sunlight. Part of this process is the release of alert bulletins/warnings to advise the public of unrest, eruption phenomena, affected areas, and should always include instructions on what to do. And the 2007 eruption was preceded by inflation and seismicity for three months, accompanied by increasing fumarolic activity the week prior (Japan Meteorological Agency 2013a). hazards research Many more people have been injured as a result of ballistic impacts, frequently suffering from blunt force trauma (broken bones), lacerations, burns, abrasions and bruising (Blong 1984; Baxter and Gresham 1997). As the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption showed, volcanoes pose significant threats to U.S. communities. In: Bobrowsky PT (ed) Encyclopedia of natural hazards. 2008; Sorensen 2013). This is a critical issue for managing ballistic risk, as eruptions with longer unrest phases typically allow evacuation of ballistic hazard zones before the eruption. Crisis communication sign temporarily used at Ruapehu volcano following a small eruption in 2007, while it was considered there was an elevated risk of further eruptions. Volcanoes. Official websites use .gov What would anexplosive eruptionfrom Mount St. Helens look like today? Probabilities were re-assessed every week immediately after eruption, which was subsequently extended to every month, then every three months as time passed. To prepare for a future eruption from Sakurajima, Tarumizu City (Kagoshima Prefecture) runs an emergency response exercise every year (http://www.city.tarumizu.lg.jp/kikikanri/kurashi/bosai/bosai/taisaku/sakurajima.html). Many volcanoes are tourist destinations with associated tourist facilities such as ski fields, accommodation and walking tracks (Erfurt-Cooper 2011). The vertical component of the particle's initial velocity is: vy0=7gt0v_{y0}=-7\cdot g\cdot t_0 Funding for this study was provided by DeVoRA (Determining Volcanic Risk in Auckland) and a New Zealand Earthquake Commission (EQC) Biennial Grant (16/727). deposits leads to increased runoff, accelerated erosion, stream-channel http://mainichi.jp/select/news/20141010k0000m040138000c.html. . Conversely, renewed volcanic activity, especially when unexpected, urgently demands rapid hazard assessments which may, as a result, be too simplistic, overly conservative or lacking sufficient detail to be considered complete. However, the report may not have been suitable or communicated well to the local municipalities responsible for disaster management as these recommendations were not adopted prior to the 2014 eruption, indicating the need for communication to ensure the information is relevant, understood and acted upon (Barclay et al. 2014). communication lines and damage or kill vegetation. To learn more aboutashandtephra, visit theVolcano Hazards Program tephra webpage. A lock () or https:// means youve safely connected to the .gov website. Following the eruption, the Volcanic Alert Level was increased to 3, warning people not to approach the volcano (as access was restricted), and that blocks may be ejected up to 1km from vent (based on previous eruptions). 2012; Tsunematsu et al. Bull Volc 35:383401, Geological Survey of Japan (2013) Sakurajima Volcano, 2nd edn. Google Scholar, Alatorre-Ibargengoitia MA, Morales-Iglesias H, Ramos-Hernndez SG, Jon-Selvas J, Jimnez-Aguilar JM (2016) Hazard zoning for volcanic ballistic impacts at El Chichn Volcano (Mexico). When activity changes, alert levels are posted on the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) website for the public to view. 2016). For this reason, the number of particles, sizes of particles, and spatial density per unit area is rarely reported (only four publications could be found with this level of detailPistolesi et al. Hurtling through the air at speeds reaching hundreds of metres per second, they travel in parabolic arcs and are capable of striking ground up to . 2014), inhibiting the ability to see ballistics until it is too late to act. DEFINITION. JMA subsequently launched a website to provide climbers with its observations of the volcanic activity around Japan, in an attempt to improve communication to climbers. As it is frequently erupting, it is assumed that visitors accept the risk that they are entering into an active volcanic hazard zone. 2014b). Multiple pyroclastic surges were produced, travelling up to 2.5km from vent, in addition to ballistics that impacted up to 1km from the vent (Kaneko et al. GNS Science Report 2006/7 38p, Coombs ML, McGimsey RG, Browne BL (2008) Preliminary volcano-hazard assessment for Gareloi Volcano, Gareloi Island. As there was no one on the hiking trail during the eruption it is difficult to assess the success of the hazard communication strategies, and these strategies would have been different during summer months with heavy track use. Aircraft that fly in the dense network of aviation routes across the Cascade Range carry nearly 200,000 people daily over Cascade airspacean amount equivalent to the population of the City of Spokane, Washington. J Volcanol Geoth Res 172(34):199215, Leonard GS, Stewart C, Wilson TM, Procter JN, Scott BJ, Keys HJ, Jolly GE, Wardman JB, Cronin SJ, McBride SK (2014) Integrating multidisciplinary science, modelling and impact data into evolving, syn-event volcanic hazard mapping and communication: a case study from the 2012 Tongariro eruption crisis, New Zealand. (2008) explore the eruptive history of Gareloi Volcano, though eruption frequency is only narrowed down to one eruption every 2050years and is not broken down into eruption magnitudes. Ballistics are the main hazard produced by these eruptions, responsible for multiple fatalities in the past (Baxter and Gresham 1997). Best practice suggests the use of multiple sources to disseminate hazard and risk information as preferred forms of media accessed for information vary (Sorensen 2000; Mileti et al. Risk communication methods used at Tongariro, New Zealand. Assessments may also vary depending on the state of the volcano. b. This map was distributed to local citizens and posted around the volcano. Cordons, initially manned, were established at either ends of the TAC to prevent hikers from entering. Additionally, damage to buildings (Fig. should be on the Decade Volcano list. Hazard maps and additional information should be made available and accessible to the public, and if different maps are made for, or directed to, different audiences their content must be consistent. At what radius, in nm\mathrm{nm}nm, would the electron orbiting the proton in a hydrogen atom emit light with a wavelength of 600nm600 \mathrm{~nm}600nm ? Tongariro, New Zealand. What are the most appropriate risk management and communication strategies for volcanoes where ballistic (and other) risk is present which have poorly understood eruptive histories and/or monitoring systems? J Volcanol Geoth Res 77:89100, Barclay J, Haynes K, Mitchell T, Solana C, Teeuw R, Darnell A, Crosweller HS, Cole P, Pyle D, Lowe C, Fearnley C, Kelman I (2008) Framing volcanic risk communication within disaster risk reduction: finding ways for the social and physical sciences to work together. Australas J Disaster Trauma Stud 2010:1, Bertolaso G, De Bernardinis B, Bosi V, Cardaci C, Ciolli S, Colozza R, Cristiani C, Mangione D, Ricciardi A, Rosi M, Scalzo A, Soddu P (2009) Civil protection preparedness and response to the 2007 eruptive crisis of Stromboli volcano, Italy. The council ran its first eruption evacuation drill on 4th June 2015. Being wintertime, there was very little use of the track. http://www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/places-to-go/central-north-island/places/tongariro-national-park/know-before-you-go/volcanic-risk-in-tongariro-national-park/. Successful management of the risk from ballistic hazards typically requires first assessing the level of risk. Ballistic Projectiles. The effects of falls can be, however. tephra fall or ashfall and ballistic projectiles Tephra (fragmented volcanic particles) or ash (fragmented volcanic particles less than 2 mm in diameter) propelled through the atmosphere in an eruption plume or an eruption column eventually fall or gravitationally settle over areas downwind of an erupting volcano, forming blankets of tephra . Sakurajima is constantly monitored by the Sakurajima Volcano Observatory and is considered to be one of the best monitored volcanoes in Japan (GSJ 2013). 2012). Ontake, Japan the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention in Japan (NIED, though now renamed to National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience) completed a report recommending: regulations on development and land-use, building of ballistic shelters and evacuation facilities, and the development of emergency plans, as an eruption in the summer hiking season would likely result in human casualties (NIED 1980). The commission, similar to the Sakurajima council, is comprised of volcanologists, local government, JMA and other interested agencies (http://www.pref.nagano.lg.jp/kisochi/kisochi-seisaku/ontakesan/kazanbousaikyougikai.html). Correspondence to Fallout deposits are usually thicker closer to the eruptive vent, and grain size is . Projectiles range from a few centimetres to tens of metres in diameter and separate from the eruptive column to follow nearly parabolic trajectories (Wilson 1972; Fagents and Wilson 1993 . Ballistic hazard maps are rare as they are typically not the only hazard produced in an eruption. Additionally, all of these volcanoes are relatively accessible and attract large numbers of tourists each year. 2010; Jolly et al. 2007; Thompson et al. The risk assessments by Jolly et al. 2). . d GeoNet website showing monitoring data such as Volcanic Alert Level, seismic drums and visuals of the volcano. and great mobility. Yasur Volcano is a frequently erupting basaltic scoria cone located on Tanna Island, Vanuatu (Cronin and Sharp 2002). 2010; Houghton et al. 2012). Fallout is another generic term for ash and tephra that falls to the Earth surface from an eruption cloud. These volcanoes have been chosen for their variation in: frequency of eruption (Sakurajima and Yasur frequently erupt, while Upper Te Maari and Mt. The bottom of the channel drops over a short length a distance of 3ft3~\mathrm{ft}3ft. In a volcanic crisis (when the volcano is showing signs of unrest or is in eruption) communication and emergency management processes and products move toward response (Fig. Accessed Nov 2014, Jenkins SF, Spence RJS, Fonseca JFBD, Solidum RU, Wilson TM (2014) Volcanic risk assessment: quantifying physical vulnerability in the built environment. 2016). However, eruptions can be directed, ejecting ballistics at low angles and at distances greater than those from more vertically directed eruptions (Fitzgerald et al. Impacts from projectiles are amongst the most frequent causes of fatal volcanic incidents and the cause of hundreds of thousands of dollars of damage to buildings, infrastructure and property worldwide. A Volcano Disaster Prevention Council was created as a means of communication to discuss disaster prevention measures between volcanologists, local government, JMA, and other invested agencies (http://www.data.jma.go.jp/svd/vois/data/fukuoka/506_Sakurajima/506_bousai.html). Report of a workshop 24 September 2013. Tephra is any fragment produced by a volcanic eruption.It includes ash (smaller than 2 mm in diameter), lapilli (2 mm-64 mm), and volcanic bombs and blocks (larger than 64 mm).. Volcanic ash is harmful to our respiratory system because, on the microscopic level, it is sharp and abrasive.Volcanic bombs and blocks (or projectiles) are dangerous because they are burning hot and heavy and can . Dangers From Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles Tephra fall and ballistic projectiles also endanger life, property, and the environment in the following ways: Small scoria pieces can be embedded in wood and can even dent metals. Accessed Mar 2015, Dohaney J, Brogt E, Kennedy B, Wilson TM, Lindsay JM (2015) Training in crisis communication and volcanic eruption forecasting: design and evaluation of an authentic role-play simulation. https://doi.org/10.1007/11157_2016_35, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/11157_2016_35, eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0). 2013; Breard et al. Seismicity declined in the days prior to eruption and thus the TAC remained open to tourists (Jolly et al. 2016). Organisational and governance frameworks to allow and facilitate this seem to be highly variable globally, but some relatively successful examples do exist (e.g. Very few studies exist on ballistic risk or vulnerability. at It is a special kind of tephra that produces bombs and blocks. 2013; Fitzgerald et al. Building vulnerability to ballistic impact has been assessed by Jenkins et al. The equation that Booth used to calculate risk includes probability of occurrence, indicating that eruption frequency has been examined; however, neither the probability used nor the description of prior eruptive history are provided in the publication. For ballistics, impacts may be death or injury; impact locations are usually within 5km of the vent; and advice may include if ballistics are landing around you, move out of their oncoming path, seek shelter and make yourself a small target. Advice on actions to be taken may vary at different volcanoes, although it would be beneficial if messages are consistent across all volcanoes to reinforce actions and increase the likelihood of people following the correct actions. Fatalities also occurred in exposed areas where there were no buildings in sight to shelter within. Alatorre-Ibargengoitia et al. It is not a continuously active volcano with four eruptions (all phreatic) in its historic record (1979, 1991, 2007 and 2014; Japan Meteorological Agency 2013a; Smithsonian Institution 2013). How Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles Are Dispersed or Hazard Zoning. How to manage future risk, particularly for volcanoes where there is significant existing use and/or strong pressure to utilise the resources through tourism (increasing visitor numbers to high risk areas), and agricultural and settlement pressure from population growth. Bull Volc 74(9):21552169, CrossRef It can also trigger lahars directly by melting icecaps and snow. All of the volcanoes studied are capable of sustaining injuries and fatalities from ballistics. 2016); the outer edges of a ballistic field (Minakami 1942; Nairn and Self 1978; Yamagishi and Feebrey 1994); and/or maximum particle (Nairn and Self 1978; Steinberg and Lorenz 1983; Robertson et al. The TAC hiking track cuts through most of the summit hazard zones, where access has been open at background levels. Nature 285:531533, Cole JW, Cowan HA, Webb TA (2006) The 2006 Raoul Island Eruptiona review of GNS sciences actions. Ontake: eyewitnesses or eruption. Methods and assessments should also be made fully available to other scientists so that these methods can be adopted at other volcanoes if chosen, which would increase best-practice and encourage similar and comparable methodologies. A lock () or https:// means youve safely connected to the .gov website. Meetings and consultations with local communities, emergency managers and other stakeholders should also occur during and following volcanic crises. J Volcanol Geoth Res 286:184207, Kagoshima City (2010) Sakurajima Volcano hazard map. Assessments are ideally probabilistic, providing spatially varying probabilities of occurrence and damage from a range of scenarios varying in frequency and magnitude, and accounting for model and input parameter uncertainty. Fatalities from ballistics could occur at all of the case study volcanoes. For example, where frequent Strombolian eruptions are the main source of ballistics, it may be possible to watch the low velocity ballistics and move out of their path. and several of the most notorious volcanoes have been designated as It is also therefore important for scientists and emergency managers to be honest about what is/is not known to maintain credibility and trust (Lindell 2013). Geology 41(5):559562, Hadisantono RD, Andreastuti MCHSD, Abdurachman EK, Sayudi DS, Nursusanto I, Martono A, Sumpena AD, Muzani M (2002) Peta Kawasan Rawan Bencana Gung Api Merapi, Jawa Tengah dan Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta scale 1:50 000 Direktorat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi, Bandung, Harris AJL, Ripepe M, Hughes EA (2012) Detailed analysis of particle launch velocities, size distributions and gas densities during normal explosions at Stromboli. 2014a). More typically, ballistic projectiles are limited to within about 5 km (3 mi) ofvents. The Communication and Risk Management of Volcanic Ballistic Hazards, http://www.city.kagoshima.lg.jp/soumu/shichoshitu/kokusai/en/emergency/sakurajima.html, http://www.city.tarumizu.lg.jp/kikikanri/kurashi/bosai/bosai/taisaku/sakurajima.html, http://www.data.jma.go.jp/svd/vois/data/fukuoka/506_Sakurajima/506_bousai.html, http://vivaweb2.bosai.go.jp/v-hazard/L_read/53ontakesan/53ontake_2h03-L.pdf, http://vivaweb2.bosai.go.jp/v-hazard/L_read/53ontakesan/53ontake_2h01-L.pdf, http://www.pref.nagano.lg.jp/kisochi/kisochi-seisaku/ontakesan/kazanbousaikyougikai.html, http://www.pref.gifu.lg.jp/English/tourism/mountain/, http://www.city.gero.lg.jp/hazardmap/#12/35.9073/137.5203, http://www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/places-to-go/central-north-island/places/tongariro-national-park/know-before-you-go/volcanic-risk-in-tongariro-national-park/, http://www.geotimes.org/apr04/feature_VPI.html, https://gbank.gsj.jp/volcano/Act_Vol/sakurajima/text/eng/exp01-5e.html, http://info.geonet.org.nz/download/attachments/8585571/Tongariro_Poster_A4.pdf, http://info.geonet.org.nz/download/attachments/8585571/Northern_Tongariro_eruption_phenomena.pdf, http://www.data.jma.go.jp/svd/vois/data/tokyo/STOCK/souran_eng/souran.htm#kantotyubu, http://www.city.kagoshima.lg.jp/soumu/shichoshitu/kokusai/en/emergency/documents/sakurazimahm_eng.pdf, http://mainichi.jp/select/news/20141010k0000m040138000c.html, http://www.bousai.go.jp/kazan/fujisan-kyougikai/report/, http://www.nhk.or.jp/d-navi/link/ontake2014-en/index.html, http://www.volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=283040, http://the-japan-news.com/news/article/0001671312, http://the-japan-news.com/news/article/0001673442, http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/09/27/national/familiesontakevictimsmarkfirstanniversarydeadlyeruption/#.VxRfHDB942w, http://www.unisdr.org/eng/terminology/terminology-2009-eng.html, http://www.geohazards.gov.vu/index.php/hazards-updated-events/volcano-alert-status, http://www.geohazards.gov.vu/index.php/geophysical-monitoring-network/vanuatu-monitoring-network, Rights and
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